Medicine in Ancient Greece and Egypt

Medicine in ancient Greece and Egypt contributed significantly to the development of modern day medical practices and healing.

There were similarities and differences between the two in the approach of healing as their practice of medicine was deeply intertwined with culture, religion, and philosophy.

The Egyptians were the first to develop advanced medical practices and healing techniques. The first mention of doctors in recorded history comes from Egypt’s Old Kingdom, the era when the Great Pyramids of Giza were constructed.

The first reference to a physician dates back to the 25th century BC when a man cured the pharaoh of an ailment in his nostrils. Even earlier, a commoner named Imhotep, who was also an architect, priest, and political advisor, was referred to as a medical practitioner. Imhotep was ultimately deified as a god of medicine.

Egyptian doctors became so famous for their competency that leaders from Persia and elsewhere purportedly sought them out. In The Odyssey, the Greek poet Homer wrote that Egyptians “are more skilled in medicine than any of human kind.”

Medicine and healing in ancient Greece was initially perceived as a gift from the gods, while illness was considered divine punishment. However, by the 5th century BC, Greeks attempted to identify the cause of illness as material, caused by natural factors.

Like Imhotep in Egypt, Hippocrates was considered the father of medicine in ancient Greece. Today, he is still considered the father of medicine internationally. The “Hippocratic Oath,” emphasizing ethical standards in medicine, continues to be referenced today.

Medical practices in Ancient Egypt

While medicine was advanced for its time in ancient Egypt, physicians combined practical remedies with magical and religious practices. Healing was often attributed to divine intervention. Rituals and offerings were common practices. Imhotep in 2725 BC, a historical figure later deified, was considered the god of medicine.

Egyptians understood that disease could be treated by pharmaceuticals, recognized the healing potential in massage and aromas, and understood the importance of cleanliness in treating patients.

Doctors in ancient Egypt specialized for years, studying medicine in temples and schools. They knew how to glue broken bones together, studied the structure of the brain, and knew that the pulse is caused by the heart. They could cure many diseases and prescribed accordingly.

Egyptians were pioneers in pathology. They practiced surgical techniques, including trepanation (removing part of the skull) and wound care. Their knowledge of anatomy was enhanced by mummification practices, which informed human anatomy, allowing them to study the human body.

Physicians often specialized in certain areas, such as surgery, internal medicine, or dentistry. A medical specialist was not allowed to practice in another field.

As medications, they used castor oil, tannic acid, and coriander. They had an obsession with the cleanliness of the bowel and its proper functioning that could be considered monomania.

Overall, the Egyptian medical practices would inform both Greek and Roman medicine.

Medical practices in ancient Greece

Asclepius was a hero and the god of medicine in ancient Greek religion and mythology. Asclepius had temples (Asclepieia) where the sick would go for healing through rituals, prayers, and dream interpretation. His attendants were called therapeutes, which in later texts were described as those who attempted to heal.

Greek medicine flourished after the 5th century BC, influenced by philosophers such as Hippocrates. He was the first to emphasize observation and knowledge of the human body and proper clinical practice.

Hippocrates formulated the theory of the four elements (Earth, Air, Fire, and Water). He considers that the body is dominated by four liquid elements, which he called humors: phlegm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile. The balance between these warring liquids or tendencies results in health.

Conversely, if one of these four elements overpowers the others, it results in deviation from the state of health. That sometimes required the reduction in the body of a humor through bloodletting or purging. Thus, human pathology tends toward one of the following four types of temperament: the phlegmatic, the bloody, the choleric, and the melancholic.

Ancient Greek physicians played an active role in the lives of patients, taking into consideration their residence. They distinguished between fatal diseases and recoverable diseases, which was important for gaining patient trust and respect, positively influencing patient compliance.

From the 2nd century AD on, Galen (of Pergamon, 129-216 AD) expanded knowledge of anatomy and physiology through dissections and experimentation. He is considered the most important ancient Greek physician after Hippocrates, and his works dominated medical thought and practice for centuries.

Egyptian medical texts

It is very likely that there were many more texts available in ancient Egypt, but only a few have survived to the present. These few, however, provide a wealth of information on how the Egyptians saw disease and what they believed would heal a patient. They were named for the individual who owned them or the institution which houses them.

The Chester Beatty Medical Papyrus, dated c. 1200 BC, prescribes treatment for anorectal disease and cannabis for cancer patients, which pre-dated the mention of cannabis in Herodotus. The Berlin Medical Papyrus, also known as the Brugsch Papyrus, dated to the New Kingdom, c. 1570 to c. 1069 BC, deals with contraception, fertility, and includes the earliest known pregnancy tests.

The Ebers Papyrus c. 1550 BC has practices that treat cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and provides advice to fight depression. The Edwin Smith Papyrus of around 1600 BC is the oldest work on surgical techniques. The Hearst Medical Papyrus, dated to the New Kingdom, treats urinary tract infections and digestive problems.

The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus of around 1800 BC deals with conception and pregnancy issues as well as contraception. The London Medical Papyrus (c. 1782-1570 BCE) offers prescriptions for issues related to the eyes, skin, burns, and pregnancy. These are only the papyri recognized as focusing entirely on medicine.

All of these works, at one time or another, were consulted by practicing doctors who routinely made house calls. The Egyptians called the science of medicine the “necessary art” for obvious reasons.

Ancient Greek medical texts

A collection of texts attributed to Hippocrates and his followers laid the groundwork for medical ethics and practice. The “Hippocratic Oath,” emphasizing ethical standards, is the most widely known of Greek medical texts and is still referenced today.

The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of writings attributed to Hippocrates, containing about sixty works on a variety of medical topics, including diagnosis, epidemics, obstetrics, pediatrics, nutrition, and surgery. There are, however, assumed to be several authors,  probably scattered over several centuries, and different treatises often give contradictory advice.

A new physician was to swear upon a number of healing gods that he would uphold a number of professional ethical standards. The student was also closely bound to his teacher and the greater community of physicians with responsibilities similar to that of a family member. In fact, the creation of the Oath may have marked the early stages of medical training to those outside the first families of Hippocratic medicine, the Asclepiads of Kos, by requesting strict loyalty.

Over the centuries, it has been rewritten often in order to suit the values and times of various cultures influenced by Greek medicine. Contrary to popular belief, the Hippocratic Oath is not required by most modern medical schools, although some have adopted modern versions that suit many in the profession. It also does not explicitly contain the phrase.

Differences and similarities

Both ancient cultures contributed significantly to the development of medicine. While Egypt focused more so on an approach combining religion and practical remedies, Greece laid the foundations for a more systematic and empirical approach that influenced modern medical practices.

However, the initial practices of both involved rituals and prayers to gods. In Egypt, Imhotep and other deities were invoked for healing. In Greece, Asclepius was central to medical practices.

In the ancient Greek and Egyptian societies, physicians often specialized in particular fields such as surgery and internal medicine, suggesting an understanding of the complexity of medical practice.