Alexander the Great was the greatest general of the Ancient World and was loved by his men, but some times his volatile temper led him to acts that he later regretted.
The Macedonian king led his army to many victorious battles that helped him expand his empire to the depths of Asia and into India. After defeating the Theban army and destroying Thebes in 335 BC, he started a massive campaign in Asia to build a vast empire, the size of which no one had ever conquered before.
In order to achieve this ambitious task, Alexander and his army fought many bloody battles in which the great general showed his remarkable strategic skills. Those battles were victorious, opening the path for the greater achievements that followed.
At the same time, Alexander’s soldiers became fearless warriors, capable of fighting any enemy, on any terrain, under any circumstances. They became the army that forged Alexander’s great empire.
Of all the clashes against the enemy, the Battle of Granicus (334 BC), the Battle of Issus (333 BC), the Siege of Tyre (332 BC), the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC), the Battle of the Persian Gate (330 BC), the Battle of the Jaxartes (329 BC), the Battle of Hydaspes (326 BC) and the Siege of Mallia (326 BC) were the most important.
The Battle of Granicus
It was in the Battle of Granicus, the first of the crucial fights in Asia, where Alexander the Great encountered the Persian armies on the battlefield for the first time. This time the Greeks were the invaders in Persian territory and not the other way around.
It was a minor battle actually, with no exceptional strategy on the part of the Macedonians. However, it was an important victory for the morale of Alexander’s soldiers. It was also significant because Alexander could reclaim lands that used to be Greek colonies.
On the enemy’s side, the Persians were unaware of the abilities of the Macedonian army and had sent a small force to fight Alexander’s army as he first entered Asia Minor. The Greek forces arrived late in the day and found the Persians camped on the other side. Alexander’s soldiers were reluctant to fight so late in the day, but the great general decided to surprise the enemy and attack immediately.
That unexpected move caught the enemy unaware, not allowing time to bring their infantry behind the cavalry that formed the forefront.
The Macedonian left wing attacked first, losing many men in the riverbed. However, they managed to draw the attention of the Persians and turned their line slightly in that direction. Alexander then led his Companion Cavalry to attack on the right flank.
General Cleitus saves Alexander’s life
Alexander led a direct assault against the Persians by plunging into the river. The two armies clashed and as Alexander charged into the enemy’s ranks, Persian satraps Rhosaces and Spithridates managed to move close to the Macedonian king.
When Spithridates raised his sword to deliver a blow that could have ended Alexander’s life, Cleitus, the commander of the Greek cavalry, who was fighting close to his king, noticed the Persian’s threatening move.
Without a thought, Cleitous rushed next to Alexander and with a swift strike of his sword, severed the arm of Spithridates, saving Alexander from certain death. It was a decisive moment for the loyal general, and a decisive moment in history. What would have happened if Alexander had died in that battle and Hellenism never spread in the expanse of his empire?
Thanks to Cleitus’ quick thinking, the momentum of the battle continued and victory was secured as soon as the cavalry crossed to the other side of Granicus. Cleitus became a hero and one of Alexander’s most trusted officers.
When the remainder of the cavalry made it across the river, they thrashed the Persians and the battle was won. Alexander was now in Persian territory, exhibiting his military might.
The drained Macedonian army
The battles continued one after the other, as Alexander’s conquests pushed further east. However, the strains on his army increased, and so did the pressure on his commanders. The soldiers were exhausted by the continuous fighting while their king demanded more and more.
In 328 BC, Alexander decided to promote Cleitus to the high-ranking position of satrap of Bactria. That meant Cleitus would have to be away from the king and lead an army of mercenaries against steppe nomads. This move frustrated him, because he believed that the army he had was of inferior quality.
By that time, tension was not only high in the army, but in Alexander’s court as well. The Macedonian king had made the diplomatic move to adopt Persian customs and practices. This had alienated the traditional Macedonian officers who were respectful of their values, culture and military hierarchy.
Cleitus himself was surprised by his king. He was a man who rose to his rank by adhering to these values, and found himself at odds with the king’s new approach. For instance, Alexander had integrated Persians into the Macedonian army, much to the discontent of his veteran officers.
Furthermore, Alexander had appointed Persian satraps and administrators to govern newly conquered territories instead of Macedonians. This created a breach between the king and some of his commanders who saw the Persians as barbarians.
Some of his officers perceived that Alexander the Great had reached new levels of self-importance and expected his people to see him as a god and bow before him, as was the Persian custom in front of a king.
However, they failed to understand that Alexander wanted to pass the Hellenistic culture to the people he had conquered. He didn’t want to appear as the barbaric king who came to subjugate and exploit them, and treat them as slaves. He wanted to spread the Greek language, Greek institutions, Greek art, in a word, Greek culture, That was his vision in Asia and Egypt.
The fatal night
Cleitus remained loyal to his king, but he was vocal about his disagreement with Alexander’s policies. Other commanders, like Parmenion, shared Cleitus’ concerns but neither wanted to confront the king directly.
All the suppressed anger of Cleitus came to a head at a feast that took place at Maracanda in 328 BC. The Macedonian court had gathered for a night of celebration, but tensions that had been simmering for months exploded, fueled by chalice upon chalice of wine.
The breaking point was when a drunk Cleitus began to openly criticize Alexander. When the Macedonian king boasted that his achievements surpassed those of his father – which was obviously true – Cleitus snapped back that all Alexander did he owed to his father.
He then said that many Macedonian soldiers sacrificed themselves for Alexander’s victories and in return the king adopted Persian customs which was a show of disrespect to his dead soldiers. Cleitus continued by reminding Alexander of the bravery of the soldiers who saved him at Granicus and mentioned the name of loyal commander Parmenion whom Alexander had ordered executed for disloyalty.
These indirect accusations struck a nerve with Alexander who was always feared that his commanders would betray him over the years.
Infuriated, Alexander struck back accusing Cleitus of disloyalty. His rage surged when he saw that his commander refused to back down. He threw an apple at Cleitus and demanded that someone bring him his sword.
Those nearby quickly hid the drunken king’s weapon and tried to remove Cleitus from the hall. Persistent Cleitus had turned back and continued to berate Alexander for his actions.
It was then that a raging Alexander grabbed a spear from one of his bodyguards and thrust it at Cleitus, piercing his chest before anyone could stop him.
The man who had once saved Alexander from a Persian sword was now lying dead before him and the rest of the speechless commanders.
In a drunken blur, the horrified king realized what he had done and attempted to take his own life in remorse, but his men restrained him.
The killing of Cleitus haunted Alexander
After that fatal night, Alexander isolated himself, consumed by grief and guilt. He had killed the man who once saved his life and was one of his most loyal supporters.
The king’s act in a drunken rage damaged the bond of trust with his men. After coming out of seclusion he tried to justify his actions to his commanders, but the killing of Cleitus filled them with sorrow and made them apprehensive of the king’s unpredictable behavior.
The killing of Cleitus continued to haunt Alexander and made his behavior erratic. In 327 BC, during the campaign in India, Alexander became more demanding of his soldiers and started treating them harshly. He was fighting with his inner demons and that was reflected in his behavior towards his men.
